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Books and publications on the
interaction of systems in real time by A. C. Sturt |
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An Electrodynamic Model of Atomic Structure |
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by
A. C. Sturt |
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2. An
alternative physical model a. Gravity c. Electrical
charges and magnetic poles 5.Proposed model of
the simplest atom b. Displacement
of the electron 6. Magnitude of
electromagnetic quanta b. Ellipse
in an inclined plane a. Proposed
structure of helium nucleus c. Magnetic
field in the helium atom e. Potential
interaction of helium atoms 9. Atomic structures
from lithium to neon 12. Atomic radii and
chemistry 2. An
alternative physical model e. Gravity g. Electrical
charges and magnetic poles 5.Proposed model of
the simplest atom d. Displacement
of the electron 6. Magnitude of
electromagnetic quanta d. Ellipse
in an inclined plane f.
Proposed structure of
helium nucleus h. Magnetic
field in the helium atom j.
Potential interaction
of helium atoms 9. Atomic structures
from lithium to neon 12. Atomic radii and
chemistry |
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Summary A new model of atomic structure is developed using the
established laws of electrodynamics. It is shown that uniform motion of an
electron in a circle does not cause loss of energy, so that it is sustainable
in orbit around a nucleus. A basic structure is proposed for the hydrogen atom in
which the radius of the electron’s orbit is determined by the balance of
electrical and gravitational attraction and centrifugal forces. The electron
has a speed which is a significant fraction of the speed of light. The atomic structure gains stability from the generation
of equal and opposing magnetic fields by the electron and the nucleus at the
axis of rotation of the atom. This requires separation of charges at the
nucleus, which in this case is a proton, and rotation at an appropriate rate
in the same sense as the electron orbits. Since the proton has mass, it also
has angular momentum and may undergo precession. When the electron is
displaced from its ground state, it accelerates back towards the nucleus with
the emission of quanta of radiation generated by interaction with the medium
of space. At the instant of each emission of a quantum the electron
has a constant velocity, which corresponds to the radius of an ‘orbit’.
Velocity increases as the electron approaches the nucleus. The quanta emitted
increase in energy as the velocity at the instant of emission increases, in
accordance with the inertial resistance theory proposed in a previous paper. The model is extended to the helium atom in which two
electrons share the same orbit and travel in the same sense but at opposite
ends of the diameter. The nucleus has a planar structure, which makes it
easier to envisage a separation of charges than in a proton. The helium
nucleus is shown to have a particularly stable structure. For the next set of higher atomic numbers electrons are
added on the principle of equal attraction by the nucleus, least repulsion by
other electrons and identical speeds to the first two. The third electron
goes into a polar orbit in lithium. The fourth electron goes into the same
orbit in the same sense but at the opposite end of the diameter. Subsequent electrons
are added in similar pairs in orbits which are great circles in a diagonal
north west to south east direction and two other diagonals in planes at 120°
to it. The resulting structure is that of the element neon. All ten electrons
have the same velocity and distance from the nucleus, which is different from
other models. Stability of such orbits depends on the synchronicity of
movement of the electrons to keep them as far apart as possible. When ten
electrons are orbiting in this way, there is room for no more; the next
electron goes into an orbit of greater radius at a slower speed, which is the
beginning of a new shell, and the process repeats itself. The analysis depends on the interaction of electrons with
the medium of space to generate electromagnetic radiation. If the medium of
space exists, and can present increasing inertial resistance to the
acceleration of mass as velocity increases, it seems possible that it may
have similar interactions with other phenomena such as electrical charge and
gravity, which permeates everything. Thus other parameters measured under
static conditions may also have magnitudes which depend on velocity through
the medium of space. It is proposed that tests should be carried out to
establish whether this is so, because it may explain the apparent equivalence
of mass and energy. The model is deterministic; it does not require
probability distributions of primary particles. It is in effect a return to
the familiar Newtonian balance of forces. 1.
Introduction
The discovery of the electron and the proton led to
speculation about where they were located in the atom, and the way in which
they interacted. By analogy with the solar system it was proposed that the
electron with its negative charge orbited in a circle around the proton with
its positive charge and much greater mass. However, this simple model was
soon discounted, because in classical
physics the electron would radiate electromagnetic energy as a result of its
circular acceleration, and so it would collapse into the nucleus, which it
manifestly did not, because the essential characteristic of atoms is their
stability. This led Bohr to postulate that electrons did in fact
circle around the nucleus, but in certain prescribed orbits which were deemed
to have the property that energy was not radiated away, so that they were
stable. These orbits represented discrete energy levels. He further
postulated that quanta of electromagnetic energy were emitted when the
electrons in excited atoms dropped back into lower energy orbits, though not
when they rose to higher energy levels. Bohr’s equation derived on this basis had the same form as
equations which were already known to describe the spectroscopic series for
the hydrogen atom. When successive integers were inserted into the equation,
the three emissions series of the excited hydrogen atom were predicted
extremely well. However, the theory had the disadvantage that it was
constructed by the application of arbitrary constraints to classical theory,
and in the event it was not possible to extend it to atoms with more than one
electron, because of interaction between the electrons. Around this time the concept of uncertainty entered into
physics. Light, which had long been considered to consist of waves, was shown
also to act as what seemed like particles. Since these two manifestations
could not be reconciled, consensus settled for a mysterious state of
wave/particle duality. By analogy with light, the concept of wave/particle
duality was extended to electrons, which were certainly particles as in
classical physics, but sometimes appeared to behave as waves with the
properties of diffraction and interference. The location of an electron
became a probability distribution. Eventually it was concluded that all fundamental particles
behaved either as waves or as particles depending on the method of
observation. To add to the uncertainty, it was also proposed that mass and
energy were related, and under the appropriate conditions they were even
interchangeable. In these circumstances it was not out of the question to
consider the electron inside the atom as a wave circling the nucleus. Wave
mechanics had the desirable effect of introducing whole numbers into orbits,
provided it was assumed that the wave circulated at such a distance from the
nucleus that its peaks were always in alignment on each cycle. Waves out of
phase would simply have annihilated. Thus the entire orbit could be represented as a circle of
waves in which the wavelength was always exactly the same. There would, of
course, be other orbits further away from the nucleus with longer pathways
which were also defined in terms of whole wavelengths. The wave concept
introduced the whole numbers which Bohr had used, but in a more
sophisticated, more general and very successful way.
Previous papers in this series (1) describe a model of the
physical world which is quite different from the wave mechanical model. The
differences are wide-reaching and profound. They can be grouped in three main
areas as follows.
It was shown that such a theory could account for
diffraction and interference by a mechanism of orbital deflection through the
coincidence of dipoles, and tests were proposed to confirm it (2). If this
model holds up, any analogy between light and particle behaviour is totally
misleading. Diffraction of electrons, for example, is not wave behaviour, but
direct interaction of charged particles with the orbits which are inherent in
atomic structures. None of this can be reconciled with the wave
mechanical model of electrons in atoms. c. When a
mass accelerates towards the speed of light, it begins to shed
electromagnetic radiation by the induction process of interaction with the
medium of space which is described above. As velocity increases, so
increasingly greater forces are required to achieve acceleration, a
phenomenon which is termed inertial resistance. The consequence is that
eventually, when the mass is approaching the speed of light, quanta of
radiation begin to be emitted as fast as energy is pumped in to produce
acceleration. Hence the limiting velocity of the speed of light (3). To take account of this, an Inertial Resistance
Factor R which increases hyperbolically with velocity is introduced
into Newton’s Second Law of Motion. The limiting value of R is the
asymptote corresponding to the velocity of light. If this theory holds good,
there is no reason to postulate that mass increases with velocity, as claimed
in Relativity. Electrons travel at a fairly leisurely pace in
electric current in a conductor; a value of less than 1m per second has been
quoted. By contrast electrons in an atomic orbit have been calculated to
travel at about a tenth of the speed of light. In particle accelerators they
may travel much faster still. Since electrons have mass, the possible effect
of an inertial field needs to be taken into account. Rutherford himself noted that electrons appeared to
increase in mass at high velocities. Taken as a whole the new
physical model presents a world which is definitely deterministic. As a consequence of this
analysis, the present paper suggests that the very first step of the
traditional classical analysis was in error: the movement of electrons in
circles does not necessarily cause loss of energy by emission of radiation.
If this is so, an electron could remain indefinitely in stable circular
orbit. As a result it may be
possible to construct an electrodynamic theory of the atom using only the
conventional Newtonian balance of forces. However, first it is
necessary to identify the assumptions which underlie the classical analysis
of gravitational, electrical and magnetic forces, and examine the reasoning
which it is suggested led to erroneous conclusions. |
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helium
wave mechanics whole numbers particles can neither
be destroyed of created electromagnetic
radiation as rotating dipoles transmits energy
through medium of space diffraction interference not wave mechanics! accelerating masses
shed radiation limit speed of light inertial resistance
factor R electrons in a
conductor are slow Rutherford classical analysis
wrong assumptions examined |
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Copyright A. C. Sturt 27 September 2001 |
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Churinga
Publishing |